Key findings

• A wide variation in the proficiency of the adult population exists between countries/economies.
• In almost all countries, a significant proportion of the population has low skills.
• In nearly all countries, at least 10% of adults lack the most elementary computer skills.
• The extent of inequality in the distribution of proficiency also varies.
• High performance and greater equality in performance tend to go together.
• For younger cohorts, there is a close relationship between their proficiency as measured in PIAAC and their performance in PISA.
• Adults with high levels of literacy (level 4/5) report positive social outcomes more frequently than do those with low levels (level 1 or below) of literacy or numeracy.
• Information-processing skills are closely related to socio-demographic characteristics such as educational attainment, age, parental education, gender, and immigration background.

Proficiency and educational attainment

• Adults with higher levels of education tend to have higher proficiency.
• There are considerable differences between countries in the average literacy proficiency of adults with educational qualifications at similar levels.

Proficiency and age

• On average, proficiency is highest among adults aged around thirty and is lowest among adults aged 60–65.
• Proficiency tends to increase with age between the ages of 16 and 30–34 years.
• There are considerable variations in the age proficiency profiles between countries; these likely reflect the different historical patterns of educational expansion over time as well as changes in educational policies and quality between and within countries.
• The observed age-proficiency profiles are consistent with evidence regarding loss of cognitive ability with increasing age.

Proficiency and immigration background

• In most, though not all, countries, native-born adults tend to score higher in all domains assessed than do adults born in a country other than their country of residence.
• With a few exceptions, immigrants who have lived in their country of residence for 5 years or more tend to score better than recent immigrants.

Proficiency and parental education

• In all countries, there is a positive relationship between proficiency in literacy and numeracy and the educational attainment of parents.
• The strength of the relationship varies considerably between countries.

Proficiency and training

• Access to education and training, both general and job-related, is positively related to literacy proficiency.
• Adults with higher levels of literacy tend to have higher participation rates.
• Norway and New Zealand stand out as countries in which access by adults with low levels of literacy is highest.

The intensity of use of information-processing skills

• The intensity of use of information-processing skills varies between countries.
• The intensity of use of information-processing skills is related to individual and firm characteristics such as proficiency in literacy and numeracy, firm size and the nature of work organization.
• Countries rank differently on the two dimensions of skills proficiency and skills use.
• The intensity of reading at work is closely related to labor productivity job satisfaction and wages.

Skills proficiency and labor market and social outcomes

• Better-skilled workers are more likely to be employed (in some countries), earn higher wages (in most countries), and have better social outcomes (in all countries).
• Workers who use their skills more frequently are also more likely to earn higher wages.
• Workers are mismatched if their skills do not match a job’s requirements.
• A large percentage of workers are mismatched by qualifications, literacy proficiency, or field-of-study.
• Only workers mismatched by qualifications suffer a wage penalty.