ICCS 2022 Results
Achievement and test scales
Scale Creation
Item response theory (IRT) modeling – the one-parameter (Rasch) model for dichotomous items as well as the partial credit model for items with more than two categories – was used to scale the test items, with each student respondent being assigned 5 plausible values for the civic knowledge scale.
List of Achievement Scales
International civic knowledge scale (5 plausible values: PV1CIV, PV2CIV, PV3CIV, PV4CIV, PV5CIV)
- IRT plausible values set to a metric where 500 reflects the mean and 100 the standard deviation for the pooled sample of ICCS 2009 countries using weights assigning equal contributions to each national sample.
- The scaling is based on the 136 cognitive test items and provides internationally comparable results for students’ civic knowledge.
- All five plausible values should be used for analysis to combine sampling and measurement error.
- Civic knowledge is reported in reference to the following four proficiency levels:
- Level A (563 or higher)
- Level B (479–562)
- Level C (395–478)
- Level D (311–394)
- The descriptions of the competencies of students meeting each of these benchmarks were determined by means of a scale-anchoring process.
Questionnaire and background scales
Scale Creation
Item response modeling – the one-parameter (Rasch) model for dichotomous items, as well as the partial credit model for items with more than two categories – was typically used to scale questionnaire items.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used as an estimate of the internal consistency of each scale.
For the national index of students’ socioeconomic background (NISB), imputation techniques were implemented.
List of Background Scales
Student questionnaire
National index of students’ socioeconomic background (S_NISB)
- Parents’ occupational status (S_P1ISCO/ S_P2ISCO)
- Parents’ highest educational level (IS4G07/IS4G09)
- Number of books at home (IS4G10)
Students’ participation in out-of-school activities
- Students’ discussion of political and social issues outside of school (S_POLDISC)
- Students’ engagement with digital media (S_ENGDM)
Students’ civic engagement in the community and at school
- Students’ civic participation in the wider community (S_COMPART)
- Students’ civic participation at school (S_SCHPART)
Students’ perceptions of classroom climate and civic learning
- Students’ perceptions of openness in classroom discussions (S_OPDISC)
- Students’ reports on civic learning at school (S_CIVLRN)
Students’ perceptions of school interactions
- Students’ perceptions of student−teacher relations at school (S_STUTREL)
- Students’ perceptions of student interaction at school (S_INTACT)
- Students’ beliefs about their influence on decision-making at school (S_INFDEC)
Students’ perceptions of political systems and institutions
- Students’ satisfaction with the political system (S_SYSSAT)
- Students’ critical views of the political system (S_SYSCRT)
- Students’ trust in civic institutions (S_INTRUST)
Students’ beliefs about threats to democracy and restrictions in national emergencies
- Students’ beliefs about threats to democracy (S_DEMTHRT)
- Students’ endorsement of restrictions in a national emergency (S_ENREST)
Students’ perceptions of good citizenship behavior
- Students’ perceptions of the importance of conventional citizenship (S_CITCON)
- Students’ perceptions of the importance of social movement related citizenship (S_CITSOC)
- Students’ beliefs about the importance of globally oriented citizenship activities (S_GLOBCIT)
Students’ support for equal rights for immigrants and gender equality
- Students’ positive attitudes toward immigrants (S_IMMPOS)
- Students’ endorsement of gender equality (S_GENEQL)
Students’ endorsement of equal rights for all ethnic groups in society
- Students’ endorsement of equal rights for all ethnic groups in society (S_ETHGRP)
Students’ support for environmental protection and their environmental concerns
- Students’ positive attitudes toward environmental protection (S_ATTENV)
- Students’ concern about threats to the global environment (S_ENVCON)
Students’ citizenship self-efficacy and willingness to participate at school
- Students’ sense of citizenship self-efficacy (S_CITEFF)
- Students’ willingness to participate in school activities (S_SCACT)
Students’ expectations to engage in activities to express their opinions
- Students’ expected participation in legal activities (S_LEGACT)
- Students’ expected participation in environmental protection activities (S_ENVACT)
- Students’ expected participation in illegal protest activities (S_ILLACT)
Students’ expectations of political participation
- Students’ expected electoral participation (S_ELECPART)
- Students’ expected active political participation (S_POLPART)
Students’ endorsement of religious influence in society
- Positive attitudes toward the influence of religion in society (S_RELINF)
European student questionnaire
Students’ European identity and perceptions of learning about Europe at school
- Students’ sense of European identity (E_EUIDENT)
- Students’ reports on opportunities for learning about Europe at school (E_EURLRN)
Students’ attitudes toward freedom of movement in Europe
- Students’ endorsement of freedom of movement within Europe (E_FREEMOVE)
- Students’ endorsement of restrictions of movement in Europe (E_RESMIG)
Students’ support for European cooperation
- Students’ support for cooperation among European countries (E_CCOOP)
- Students’ endorsement of environmental cooperation in Europe (E_COOPENV)
Students’ expectations for Europe’s future
- Students’ positive expectations for European future (E_EUFPOS)
- Students’ negative expectations for European future (E_EUFNEG)
Students’ expectations for their own future
- Students’ expectations for their own individual future (E_INDFUT)
Students’ reports on ethical consumerism and sustainable behaviors
- Students’ reports on political consumerism behaviors (E_ETHCON)
- Students’ reports on their sustainable behaviors (E_SUSBEH)
Students’ attitudes toward the EU
- Students’ positive attitudes toward European Union (E_EUATPOS)
- Students’ negative attitudes toward European Union (E_EUATNEG)
Latin American student questionnaire
- Students' endorsement of authoritarian government practices (L_AUTGOV)
- Students' endorsement of corrupt practices in government (L_ATTCORR)
- Students' acceptance of disobeying the law (L_DISLAW)
- Students' positive attitudes toward homosexuals (L_ATTHS)
Teacher questionnaire
Teachers’ perceptions
- Teachers' perceptions of teacher participation at school (T_TCHPRT)
- Teachers' perceptions of social problems at school (T_PROBSC)
- Teachers' perceptions of classroom climate (T_PCCLIM)
Teachers’ perceptions of the importance of good citizenship
- Teachers' perceptions of the importance of conventional citizenship (T_CITCON)
- Teachers' perceptions of the importance of social movement related citizenship (T_CITSOC)
- Teachers' perceptions of the importance of global citizenship (T_GLOBCIT)
Teachers’ reports
- Teachers' reports of student activities in the community (T_STDCOM)
- Teachers' reports on student involvement in activities (T_STDINV)
- Teachers' reports on activities dealing with diversity (T_DIVACT)
- Teachers' reports on activities related to digital technologies (T_ACTDIG)
- Teachers' reports on civic-related activities in class (T_CIVCLAS)
- Teachers' reports on activities related to global issues (T_ACTGLOB)
Teachers’ reports on their preparedness for teaching and student's opportunities to learn civic and citizenship education (CCE) topics
- Teachers' preparedness for teaching CCE topics and skills (T_PRPCCE)
- Teachers' perceptions of students' opportunities to learn about civic topics and skills (T_OPPLRN)
Teachers' reports on their professional development (PD) activities
- Teachers' reports on their PD activities (T_PDACCE)
- Teachers' PD activities for teaching methods (T_PDATCH)
Teachers’ opinions about the influence of cultural and ethnic differences on teaching activities
- Teachers' positive opinions about the influence of cultural and ethnic differences on teaching activities (T_POSCDIF)
- Teachers' negative opinions about the influence of cultural and ethnic differences on teaching activities (T_NEGCDIF)
Teachers’ opinions about the influence of socioeconomic differences on teaching activities
- Teachers' positive opinions about the influence of socioeconomic differences on teaching activities (T_POSSDIF)
- Teachers' negative opinions about the influence of socioeconomic differences on teaching activities (T_NEGSDIF)
School questionnaire
School principals’ perceptions
- Perceptions of teacher participation at school (C_TCPART)
- Perceptions of student activities in the community (C_STDCOM)
- Perceptions of environment-friendly practices being followed (C_ENPRAC)
Schools’ principals' perceptions of student and parent involvement at school
- Perceptions of student involvement at school (C_STDINV)
- Perceptions of parent involvement at school (C_PARINV)
Schools’ principals' perceptions of social tensions in the community
- Principal's perceptions of ethnic tensions in the community (C_COMETN)
- Principal's perceptions of poverty-related tension in the community (C_COMPOV)
- Principal's perceptions of crime-related tension in the community (C_COMCRI)
Schools’ principals' reports on
- Training activities relating to the use of digital technologies (C_ACTDIGT)
- Availability of resources in local community (C_AVRESCOM)
Overview of key study results
International results
Provision of civic and citizenship education
- Civic and citizenship education was implemented in different ways: as a separate subject, integrated into subjects related to human and social sciences, and/or through co-curricular activities.
- Important aims of civic and citizenship education as perceived by school principals and teachers included promoting critical and independent thinking, understanding citizens' rights and responsibilities, and respecting the environment.
- Teacher training varied, with many countries requiring mandatory pre-service and in-service training. However, relatively few teachers reported training on voting, elections, and political systems.
Students’ civic knowledge
- There were considerable differences in average civic knowledge across education systems participating in ICCS 2022, with even greater variation within countries.
- The median range between the lowest five percent and the highest 95 percent of student civic knowledge scores within countries spanned slightly less than four levels on the ICCS civic knowledge scale.
- On average, 15 percent of students across countries had quite low levels of civic knowledge that without the capacity of engaging with fundamental principles of democracy.
- The proportion of students achieving at Level B and above on the civic knowledge scale decreased from 70 percent to 64 percent, while the proportion of students achieving below Level D increased from nine percent to 13 percent.
- Six out of thirteen countries had statistically significant decreases in civic knowledge between 2016 and 2022. No country had a statistically significant increase.
- Female students consistently demonstrated higher civic knowledge than male students, with the difference equivalent to roughly one-third of a level on the ICCS scale.
- Higher socioeconomic status (SES), as measured by parental occupation, education, and number of books at home, was positively associated with higher civic knowledge.
- Students from immigrant backgrounds and those speaking a language other than the test language at home had lower civic knowledge scores.
- Multilevel regression analyses confirmed the consistent relationship of socioeconomic background with civic knowledge, both at the individual level and at the level of schools.
Students’ civic engagement
- Students’ interest in political and social issues remained relatively low, with fewer than a third of the respondents expressing high interest.
- Most students expressed confidence in engagement activities, such as arguing a point of view or organizing a group for school changes.
- Television remained the most common source of information, followed by the internet and newspapers.
- Discussions of social and political issues with parents and friends increased, showing a strong positive association with interest in civic issues.
- Digital media use for civic engagement was limited, with "liking" online posts being the most common activity.
- Participation in school civics-related activities was higher than engagement in community groups, but there were slight decreases since 2016.
- Majorities of students expected to engage in environmental protection activities in the future, but fewer expected to participate in illegal protest activities.
- Prospective electoral participation remained high, though there were declines since previous cycles.
Students’ attitudes toward important issues
- Students expressed support for democracy but were critical of their political systems. While nearly three-quarters agreed that democracy is the best form of government, only about half believed their political system works well.
- Students tended to recognize threats to democracy and identify critical situations like government attempts to control media or law-breaking by officials as detrimental to democratic processes.
- There were decreases in students’ trust in institutions like the national government, parliament, courts of justice, and police in many countries.
- Attitudes toward equal rights remained strong, with high levels of students’ support for gender equality and equal rights for immigrants and ethnic groups.
- Students with higher civic knowledge and from higher SES backgrounds were more concerned about global environmental threats and more supportive of environmental protection.
School contexts for civic and citizenship education
- There were high levels of student participation in democratic processes at school, however, there was also considerable variation across countries.
- Positive classroom climates for discussing civic issues were associated with higher levels of civic learning.
- Many students reported to have opportunities to collaborate with external groups in civic-related activities and learn about a wide range of civic issues, including how to verify online information.
- Teachers reported addressing diversity in their classrooms and valued it as an educational resource, and many indicated to have received training on diversity and inclusiveness.
Key findings related to contemporary focus areas
Sustainability
- Majorities of students viewed issues like pollution, water shortages, climate change, and loss of biodiversity as significant threats to the world’s future.
- Students with higher civic knowledge were more likely to support environmental protection and expect to take action in the future.
- Many education systems included environmental issues in the curriculum, and teachers felt prepared to teach about these topics.
Engagement through digital technologies
- Television remained the most common source of information about political and social issues, while fewer students reported higher levels of internet use for information or digital civic engagement.
- Positive associations were found between digital engagement, interest in civic issues, and expected active political participation.
Diversity
- There were high levels of support for gender equality and equal rights for immigrants and ethnic groups, particularly among female students and those with higher civic knowledge.
- Most school principals and teachers reported to actively address diversity and many teachers reported to have received training on teaching diverse classrooms and promoting tolerance.
Views of political systems
- Students expressed support for democracy but showed critical views of their political systems. However, satisfaction with political systems varied significantly across countries.
- There were high levels of recognition of threats to democracy among surveyed students.
Global citizenship
- Students rated globally oriented citizenship behaviors, such as supporting initiatives for global equality and environmental sustainability, as important for good citizenship.
- Higher civic knowledge was associated with greater endorsement of the importance of global citizenship behaviors.
- Education systems included global issues and interconnections in their curricula, and teachers reported to feel prepared to address these topics.
Implications for educational policy and practice
- There were no further increases in civic knowledge since 2016 and decreases in several countries, which were possibly related to disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic.
- There was significant variation in civic knowledge within and across countries, which suggests the need for more inclusive civic learning.
- ICCS 2022 results reaffirmed the importance of open classroom climates and opportunities for student engagement in schools.
- The findings suggest that an emphasis on civic knowledge and engagement in school environments has the potential of promoting active citizenship orientations in the future.
- ICCS 2022 data show that schools and teachers had developed initiatives to address diversity, use of digital technologies, and global citizenship issues.
Others
Regional Results - European
European identity
- Most European lower-secondary students expressed a strong sense of European identity, feeling proud to live in Europe and part of the EU.
- Students with higher levels of trust in national institutions had a stronger sense of European identity.
- There was a statistically significant increase in students’ sense of European identity across all ICCS cycles.
Learning about Europe
- Most students reported opportunities to learn about the history of Europe and the EU at school.
- Over half of the students learned about the political and economic systems of other European countries and political and social issues in Europe.
- Most teachers felt prepared to teach about the EU, though less than half of them reported participation in professional development on EU-related issues.
Freedom of movement
- Most students supported freedom of movement for work across Europe but also endorsed additional regulations.
- Support for freedom of movement varied considerably across countries.
- Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and with stronger civic knowledge were more in favor of freedom of movement.
Cooperation among European countries
- Majorities of students endorsed cooperation among European countries on environmental issues, terrorism, educational qualifications, social and economic inequalities, and refugee acceptance.
- There were high levels of support for a European army for international missions.
- Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and with higher civic knowledge were more inclined to support European cooperation.
Environmental behaviors
- More than half of the students reported buying or asking for green products and goods that can be recycled.
- Many students reported refusing to buy goods with a negative environmental impact.
- Attention to the environmental impacts of consumer behavior was higher than attention to social implications.
Future of Europe
- Most students had positive expectations about the future of Europe and anticipated stronger cooperation, democracy, improved healthcare access, and increases in the proportion of female political leaders.
- Concerns regarding the future of the EU included economic differences, influence of rich groups in politics, poverty, and unemployment.
- Concerns about infectious diseases increased and were likely influenced by the recent experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic.
Attitudes toward the EU
- Students held positive views of the EU’s role in protecting rights, laws, peace, and the economy.
- The data showed higher percentages of students with negative attitudes focused on perceived power imbalances, high costs, and lengthy legislative processes.
- Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and with higher civic knowledge had more positive attitudes towards the EU.
Trust in European institutions
- More than half of the students trusted the European Commission and Parliament and expected to vote in European elections.
- Trust in these institutions and expectations to vote decreased since ICCS 2016 but increased slightly since ICCS 2009.
Students' personal futures
- Most students were positive about their personal futures, confident in finding jobs, earning enough money, and having chances to travel.
- There was little variation in these expectations between ICCS 2022 and 2016.
Implications for policy and practice
- Civic knowledge and attitudes: Findings highlight the strong association between students' civic knowledge and their attitudes towards European identity, freedom of movement, and cooperation.
- Professional development: The varying levels of teacher training on EU topics suggest a need for more professional development opportunities in civic and citizenship education.
- Trust and engagement: The decrease in trust in European institutions and expectations to vote indicates a need for initiatives to enhance students’ knowledge of the EU and its institutions to foster closer connections.
- Environmental education: Schools should emphasize the social and economic dimensions of sustainability alongside environmental impacts, fostering comprehensive awareness among students.
Sources - Report(s) of results